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Understanding Oscillations, Optics, and Lasers

Oscillations: The Rhythmic Heartbeat of Physics Oscillations describe any system that moves back and forth in a periodic manner. The most familiar example might be the swinging of a pendulum, but oscillatory behavior occurs in countless natural systems, from the vibrations of molecules to the orbits of celestial bodies. Key Concepts in Oscillations: Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) : This is the most basic type of oscillation, where the restoring force acting on an object is proportional to its displacement. Classic examples include a mass on a spring or a pendulum swinging with small amplitudes. The equations governing SHM are simple, but they form the basis for understanding more complex oscillatory systems. Damped and Driven Oscillations : In real-world systems, oscillations tend to lose energy over time due to friction or air resistance, leading to  damped oscillations . In contrast,  driven oscillations  occur when an external force continuously adds energy to the system, preventing i

Disk Attachment

Disk Attachment
Disk drives can be connected either directly to a particular host (a local disk) or to a network.

Host-Attached Storage
* Local disks are retrieved through I/O Ports as described earlier.
* The most common links are IDE or ATA, each of which allow up to two drives per host controller.
* SATA is similar with simpler cabling.
* High end workstations or other systems in use of larger number of disks typically use SCSI disks:
• The SCSI standard helps up to 16 targets on each SCSI bus, one of which is 
normally the host adapter and the 15 other of which can be disk or tape drives.
• A SCSI target is usually a single drive, but the standard also bears up to 8 units 
within each target. These would generally be used for retrieving individual disks 
within a RAID array. (See below.)
• The SCSI standard also assists multiple host adapters in a single computer, i.e. 
multiple SCSI busses.
• Modern advancements in SCSI include "fast" and "broad" versions, as well as 
SCSI-2.
• SCSI cables may be anyone 50 or 68 conductors. SCSI devices may be exterior as well as interior.
* FC is a high-speed serial architecture that can handle over optical fiber or four-conductor copper wires, and has two variants:
• A large switched fabric has a 24-bit address space. This variant allows for 
multiple devices and multiple hosts to linked, forming the basis for the 
storage-area networks, SANs, to be talk over in a future section.
• The actuated loop, FC-AL that can address up to 126 devices (drives and 
controllers.)

Network-Attached Storage
* Network attached storage connects storage devices to computers using a remote procedure call, RPC, interface, typically with something like NFS file system mounts. This is easy for permiting several computers in a group common access and naming 
conventions for shared storage.
* NAS can be executed using SCSI cabling, or ISCSI uses Internet protocols and standard network connections, allowing long-distance remote access to shared files.
* NAS permits computers to easily share data storage, but tends to be less efficient than standard host-attached storage.
Storage-Areaa Network
* A Storage-Area Network, SAN, links computers and storage devices in a network, using storage protocols instead of network protocols.
* One advantage of this is that storage access does not link regular networking 
bandwidth.
* SAN is very flexible and dynamic, permiting hosts and devices to attach and detach on the fly.
* SAN is also controllable, permiting restricted access to certain hosts and devices.
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